Human Rights in Islam: The Farewell Sermon

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

First Part

Pilgrims on Mount Arafat – Saudi Arabia

Introduction

In human history, few events have had a transformative power and lasting significance comparable to the Farewell Sermon, delivered by Prophet Muhammad ﷺ in 632 A.D. This extraordinary speech, attended by over 100,000 pilgrims on the plains of Arafat, represents the first complete declaration of human rights, anticipating the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by over thirteen centuries.

The Farewell Sermon was not just a religious message, but a revolutionary manifesto that radically redefined the relationships between individuals and society, between rulers and the ruled, and among different races, classes, and genders. It established principles of justice, equality, and human dignity that became the foundation of Islamic civilization, continuing to inspire movements for social justice around the world.

This first article in our five-part series explores the historical context, detailed content, and revolutionary impact of this epoch-making speech, which transformed Arab society and established principles that remain fundamental in contemporary debates on human rights and social justice.

Historical Context

The year 632 AD represents a fundamental turning point in human history. On that occasion, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, in front of a vast crowd gathered on Mount Arafat during his last pilgrimage, delivered what would go down in history as the Farewell Sermon. More than 100,000 people, coming from every corner of the Arabian Peninsula and beyond, witnessed this extraordinary event that marked the culmination of a prophetic mission lasting twenty-three years. A journey that not only radically transformed the Arabian Peninsula but also laid the foundations for a global civilization.

The historical value of that moment cannot be overstated. At the beginning of the 7th century, the Arabian Peninsula was a land marked by tribal conflicts, deep social inequalities, economic exploitation, and systematic oppression of the weakest. Women were considered property, slaves had no rights, justice was often subordinate to tribal interests, and might prevailed over the law. In this troubled context, the Islamic message rose with a revolutionary proclamation of human equality and divine justice.

The Farewell Pilgrimage was an unprecedented event in both scale and diversity. Pilgrims from every social, tribal, and ethnic background gathered together: former slaves alongside tribal chiefs, Arabs and non-Arabs side by side, rich and poor united in the same place. This extraordinary assembly provided the perfect context for a message meant to transcend all artificial barriers and speak to all of humanity. The Prophet’s ﷺ awareness that this would be his final pilgrimage gave his words a special intensity and urgency. He began his address by inviting those present to convey his message to those who were absent, turning every listener into a messenger and ensuring that the principles he set forth would spread far beyond the immediate audience, resonating through the centuries to come.

The text of the Farewell Sermon, transmitted through numerous authentic historical sources, contains fundamental passages that enshrine the principles of human rights and social justice. As reported by the companions of the Prophet ﷺ, the sermon provides a comprehensive perspective for understanding the Islamic approach to human dignity and social organization.

The Sanctity of Life and Property

The sermon began with the pronouncement of one of the key principles of human rights: the sanctity of life and property. The Prophet ﷺ said:

"O people! Your lives and your property are sacred and inviolable until you meet your Lord, just as this day and this month are sacred. Have I conveyed the message? O Allah, bear witness!

These words firmly established the absolute and inviolable nature of the right to life and property. By comparing the sanctity of human existence and material possessions to the sanctity of the Day of Arafat and the month of Pilgrimage — concepts deeply rooted and respected by Muslims — the Prophet ﷺ employed shared references to emphasize the scope and universal significance of these fundamental rights. The rhetorical question "Have I conveyed the message?", followed by the invocation of Allah as a witness, conferred further solemnity and binding value to this principle.

The meaning of this declaration transcends the historical context in which it was pronounced. In a society where tribal incursions, vendettas, and disputes over property were widespread phenomena, the affirmation of the absolute protection of life and property constituted a revolutionary turning point. This principle would become a fundamental element in Islamic legal systems, influencing over time the conceptions of personal security and property rights.

The Abolition of Usury and Economic Justice

The sermon continued by introducing a radical reform in economic relations, with particular attention to the abolition of usury (riba):

"All usury is abolished. The first usury I abolish is that of my uncle Abbas ibn Abdul Muttalib. All of it is abolished."

This declaration was revolutionary in several ways. Firstly, it established that economic relations should be foundend on justice and mutual benefit rather than exploitation. Secondly, the Prophet ﷺ began with his own family, demonstrating that reform applied universally, with no exceptions even for the most influential or affluent. Thirdly, it provided a concrete example of how to construct a more equitable economic system.

The abolition of usury was not merely an economic measure, but a comprehensive approach to social justice. Usury, in fact, tends to concentrate wealth in the hands of those who already possess capital, further worsening the condition of those compelled to incur debt. By prohibiting this practice, Islam laid the foundations for an economic system that hindered excessive concentration of wealth and promoted broader participation in economic life.

The Prophet's ﷺ choice to begin with the usurious transactions of his family demonstrated that reform had to start with those in positions of responsibility and influence. This approach became a model for Islamic governance, emphasizing that leaders must be the first to practice the principles they ask others to follow.

Women's Rights and Family Relationships

The sermon addressed women's rights in terms that were revolutionary for the seventh century:

"You have rights over your wives and they have rights over you. Your right over them is that they should not allow anyone you dislike to enter your house, and their right over you is that you should treat them well in clothing and food."

This passage established several groundbreaking principles. First, it recognized women as rights-bearing individuals rather than mere property. Second, it established the concept of mutual rights and responsibilities within marriage, creating a framework of reciprocity rather than domination. Third, it provided specific, practical guidance for ensuring that these rights were respected in daily life.

The recognition of women's rights in the farewell sermon must be understood within its historical context. In pre-Islamic Arab society, women had no legal rights: they could be inherited as property, had no say in their marriages, and, in the event of divorce, enjoyed no protection. The reforms introduced by Islam marked a fundamental turning point in the condition of women, laying the groundwork for future developments in women's rights.

The emphasis on mutual rights and responsibilities also established a model for human relationships that extended beyond marriage to encompass all social interactions. The principle that rights come with corresponding responsibilities would become a central feature of Islamic social philosophy and would influence approaches to governance, economics, and international relations.

Racial Equality and Human Brotherhood

Perhaps the most famous passage of the Farewell Pilgrimage sermon addressed the issue of racial and ethnic equality:

“"O people! Your Lord is one and your father is one. All of you are from Adam, and Adam was created from dust. An Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab, nor does a non-Arab have superiority over an Arab. A white person has no superiority over a black person, nor does a black person have superiority over a white person, except in righteousness and Allah consciousness (taqwa)."

This declaration was perhaps the most radical statement on racial equality made in the ancient world. At a time when most civilizations were built on assumptions of racial and ethnic superiority, Islam proclaimed the fundamental equality of all human beings regardless of their racial or ethnic background.

The theological foundation for this equality – that all humans are descended from Adam, who was created from dust – provided a powerful counter-narrative to prevailing ideas about racial hierarchy. By grounding human equality in divine creation rather than human convention, the sermon established this principle as unchangeable and universal.

Particularly significant is the exception clause: "except in righteousness and in the consciousness of God". It establishes that, although all human beings are equal in dignity and rights, they may distinguish themselves by their spiritual and moral worth. In this way, a meritocracy based on ethical conduct is proposed, rather than on hereditary characteristics, promoting moral development without undermining the fundamental equality of individuals.

The Rights of Slaves and Servants

The sermon also addressed the treatment of slaves and servants, establishing principles that would gradually lead to the elimination of slavery:

"Fear Allah regarding your slaves. Feed them with what you eat and clothe them with what you wear. If they commit a fault that you do not wish to forgive, then sell them, for they are the servants of Allah and are not to be tortured."

Although this passage did not immediately abolish slavery, it laid the groundwork for a radical transformation of the institution,paving the way for its eventual elimination. The obligation to treat slaves as human beings, to provide for their basic needs, and to refrain from torture represented a revolutionary change in their living conditions. The phrase “they are servants of Allah” is particularly significant, as it affirmed that slaves, like all human beings, had a direct relationship with the Divine, independent of the autority of their earthly "masters." This theological principle would provide the foundation for future arguments concerning the intrinsic dignity of every human being and the ultimate incompatibility of slavery with Islamic principles.

Contemporary Relevance and Applications

The principles outlined in the Farewell Sermon remain highly relevant in contemporary discussions on human rights and social justice. In a global context marked by persistent phenomena such as racial discrimination, economic inequality, and social injustice, the sermon's emphasis the dignity of the individual, equality, and collective responsibility offers both points for reflection and practical guidance.

Addressing Contemporary Challenges

The sermon’s focus on equality among different ethnicities is particularly relevant to contemporary issues of racism and discrimination. The theological affirmation of human equality provides a solid foundation for countering ideologies of racial superiority and promote more inclusive societies.

From an economic perspective, the principles articulated in the sermon suggest alternatives to current models that produce significant disparities and negative environmental impacts. The emphasis on justice, shared responsibility, and sustainable practices serves as a basis for developing more equitable and environmentally conscious economic systems.

Interfaith Dialogue and Cooperation

The universal values articulated in the sermon foster dialogue and collaboration among variouss religious traditions on issues of common interest. The call to dignity, justice, and compassion resonates across multiple spiritual traditions and may serve as a foundation for joint initiatives at the global level.

The recognition that righteousness and virtue can be found in people of every background also provides a theological basis for mutual respect and learning among different communities, without abandoning one’s own religious identity.

Conclusion

The Farewell Sermon stands as one of the fundamental texts in the history of thought on human rights and social justice. The principles it expresses, revolutionary for their time, remain highly relevant today, having contributed to the shaping of Islamic civilization and continuing to inspire social reform movements worldwide.

In the face of today’s challenges—inequality, discrimination, and injustice—the wisdom contained in this ancient text continues to offer guidance and inspiration. The sermon stands as evidence that the protection of human rights has deep historical roots and can still inform and support our contemporary efforts.

The next article in the series will examine the concrete application of these principles through the story of Bilal ibn Rabah, whose transformation from slave to a prominent figure in the Islamic community stands as an emblematic example of the transformative potential of the ideals proclaimed in the Farewell Sermon.

Jemal Gere Oromo